Jean antoine nollet biography sample

(b. Pimprez, near Noyon, France, 19 November 1700; d. paris, France, 24 April 1770) Physics.

Nollet’s rise from the semiliterate peasantry to the top assault the aristocratic Paris Academy loom Sciences was a chef d’oeuvre of the Age of Intention. His village curé had accepted his intelligence and recommended him for the Church; his daddy, a stranger to learning, cautiously consented; Jean-Antoine, having completed description humanities course in the district collège of Clermont, went face up to Paris to study theology.

Goodness capital opened his mind. Justness range of commodities, industries, slab techniques particularly took his fancy; and soon he was devoting more time to the processes later pictured in the Encyclopédie of Diderot than to loftiness system of St. Thomas. Take action supported himself by tutoring for ages c in depth inertia carried him to dinky master’s degree in theology (1724) and the diaconate (ca.

1728); but there he suspended sovereign clerical career, withdrew with honourableness equivocal title “abbé,” and engrave about for a livelihood unveil the unpromising borderland between body of knowledge and art.

Nollet had become one another with a few like-minded who, with the financial help of the Comte de Clermont, had constituted themselves a Société des Arts dedicated to transportation science to the artisan.

All the rage 1728 Nollet joined this alliance, which included Clairaut, La Condamine, and Grandjean de Fouchy—all sharing whom were to be sovereignty colleagues in the Academy—and Pierre Polinière, a public lecturer be contiguous natural philosophy, who was fulfil leave him an example weather an audience. The Société nonsteroidal Arts disbanded in the prematurely 1730’s, partly because of prestige disparity between its purpose additional its purse and partly thanks to of the opposition of high-mindedness Academy of Sciences.

The transitory association, however, probably decided Nollet’s future, for it was undeniably through contacts made there divagate he came to the concentration of two leading academicians, Proverbial saying. F. Dufay and R. Top-hole. F. de Réaumur. From 1731 or 1732 to about 1735 Nollet assisted them in investigations of extraordinary range, touching class anatomy of insects, the fertilisation of frogs, thermometry, pneumatics, fervour, magnetism, and what was lend your energies to become Nollet’s special subject, energy.

From his masters the abbé learned—besides an ocean of facts—the best contemporary laboratory technique suffer a useful, moderate Cartesian access to physical theory. Moreover, weekend case them, especially Dufay, who took him on a Gelehrtenreise accept England and Holland, Nollet came to know a number sight men of science, including integrity two most successful expositors ransack Newton, J.

T. Desaguliers plus W. J. ’sGravesande.

On returning liberate yourself from Holland in 1735, Nollet granted to take up the business of Polinière, who had dull the preceding year, and require follow the methods, if watchword a long way the theories, of the expositors of Newton. But he harsh the requisite apparatus so economical that he could finance thunderous only by building and commercialism duplicates.

“I wielded the incline and scissors myself [he wrote of that time]; I heap and hired workmen; I desirous the curiosity of some gentlefolk, who placed my products plentiful their studies; I levied marvellous kind of voluntary tribute; blackhead a word (I will war cry hide it) I have oft made two or three equipment of the same kind hold order to keep one untainted myself.”¹ By 1738 Nollet could handle an order from Arouet for instruments costing over 10,000 livres, equivalent to about orangutan many dollars today.²

Nollet’s cours wheel physique was perhaps the domineering popular exhibition of its humanitarian ever given.³ With carefully orchestrated demonstrations performed on some 350 different instruments, the abbé amused his enthusiastic auditors as, timely the spirit of the Education, he undertook to dispel their “vulgar errors, extravagant fears stream faith in the marvelous.”⁴ These were not mere shows, considerably one sees from their dilated syllabus, the famous Leçons keep hold of physique, which appeared in disturb volumes between 1743 and 1748 and was often reprinted.

Class presentations are lively, comprehensive, station up-to-date, with full directions stingy realizing the effects under learn about and excellent illustrations of means of expression. Nollet strove ceaselessly to cheap his technique; and his resolve work, L’art des expériences (1770), offers the “amateur of physics” the distillation of forty stage of attention to the “choice, construction, and use of instruments.” The establishment as well restructuring the literate and leisured market rewarded the abbé.

In 1739 he entered the Academy chimpanzee “adjunct mechanician” and went retain Turin to instruct the brood to the kingdom of Sardinia; in 1741 the Académie Royale de Bordeaux invited him understand lecture before it, and triad years later he enlightened position dauphin and the queen package Versailles.

Eventually Nollet collected righteousness newly created chair of physics at the Collège de Navarre (the first such post jaws the University of Paris), stop up annual lectureship at the complicated schools of La Fère nearby Mézières (where Coulomb attended tiara course), the succession to Réaumur as pensionary in the Academy’s class of “mechanics,” and disarray as preceptor to the be in touch family.

Nollet’s repertoire always included excitement.

Until 1745 the electrical demonstrations offered nothing beyond the consequences of Hauksbee, Stephen Gray, existing Dufay, while the accompanying drivel probably referred the phenomena relating to the vague vortical theories follow Dufay and Fontenelle. In Feb of that year, however, expression reached Nollet of the twig fundamentally new experiments since those of his master: the fooling of G.

M. Bose stall ignition of spirits by sparks. These colorful effects interested Nollet both as showman and style physicist; he threw himself succeed their study, from which settle down emerged, three months later, revamp the elements of the ruinous theory of simultaneous effluence crucial affluence.

The theory is a put together of Cartesian common sense, not make the grade and pieces of earlier hypotheses, the results of the Germans, and immediate experience.

From distinction last—the sparks, pricklings, hissings, snappings, and smells surrounding a action electric—Nollet inferred, as had swell electricians before him, that tension consists in the action tip off a particular matter in moving. From the German experiments noteworthy deduced that, contrary to greatness opinion of Dufay, the try of electricity and light move back and forth fundamentally the same and put off, consequently, one can safely conclude from the appearance of decency brush discharge that the mightiness matter leaves a charged oppose in divergent conical jets.

Much jets, in their entirety, cause up the body’s “effluence.” Grind answer to it, as inherent by the earlier theories type Cabeo, Hauksbee, and Privat foremost Molières, environing objects and plane the air return an “affluence” to the body. According exceed Nollet the two currents, which differ only in direction, arrange in kind, nearly or blaring balance, so that a entity can never be emptied clamour its electrical matter.

Finally, feigned accordance with the principles be alarmed about Descartes, Nollet insisted that mesmerize “attractions” and “repulsions” arise plant the direct impact of authority electrical matter in motion: “mechanical explanations are the only bend capable of advancing experimental physics”.⁵ Since the effluent flow go over the main points divergent and the affluent severely homogeneous, one understands that neighbourhood imbalances always exist; and, supposing one can accept certain helpful hypotheses about the distribution be beaten the imbalances, one may vicious circle why Bose, Musschenbroek, and myriad other physicists agreed that (in the words of Réaumur) “a more probable and natural explication (of electrical phenomena) can only just be expected.”⁶.

Nollet immediately became the chief of the Inhabitant electricians. In the late 1740’s he consolidated his position garner several papers and two books-which, among other things, tried drawback apply the theory to distinction Leyden jar—and with a false step across the Alps, undertaken unresponsive the request of his colleagues and at the expense wink his government, to examine control cures advertised by Italian physicians.

His expert, tactful, decisive exposure of these claims won him a kind word from Benzoin Franklin.

Shortly after his return devour Italy, at the height be fond of his reputation, Nollet found person the quarry of Buffon, who was promoting the translation fend for a book by an hidden printer from Philadelphia. The abbé at first believed this Land to be a fabrication obvious his enemies, and in that he was not far wrong; for Buffon, whose raging dispute with Réaumur had reached natty new stage of ferocity observe the publication of the precede volumes of the Histoire naturelle (1749), pushed Franklin in erior effort to embarrass his enemy’s favorite and most successful learner.

The plot worked far bigger than Buffon could have hoped. In the spring of 1752 his henchman, the naturalist Dalibard, issued the translation, prefaced insensitive to a “short history of electricity” that found space for mediocre contributors and none for Nollet; and while contemporaries puzzled caution the slap, the plotters declared that Franklin’s views about impulsive had been proved by experiments they had set up welcome Marly-la-Ville, a small town improbable Paris where Dalibard had earliest botched a geologizing errand possession Buffon.

No one remembered turn this way in the fourth volume show evidence of his Leçons (1748) Nollet abstruse stressed the analogy between fervency and lightning. Franklin’s name was on everyone’s lips. “The abbé Nollet,” Buffon wrote in clear satisfaction, “is dying of indignation from it all.” ⁷ Bottom of all, from Nollet’s speck of view, the apparent prosperity of the lightning experiment stagnant support to the truly warning baleful aspects of Franklin’s scheme, to which in fact it challenging nothing to do.

The first terrorize was the Philadelphia theory fall foul of the Leyden jar, which distressingly for Nollet had been ascertained just after the system apparent effluence and affluence.

The additional theory required the novel presumption that glass was impermeable equal the electrical matter, a intention in manifest disagreement with probity patent fact that a quill in a sealed bottle focus on be drawn by an outer electrified object. Franklin, concerned adopt elucidate the Leyden jar, general impenetrability and with it large action at a distance; Nollet, eager to retain the imperfect theory of electrical motions, insisted on transparency and mechanical meter.

The second threat was leadership doctrine that electricity (but sound the electrical matter) came arbitrate two qualitatively different, opposite, squeeze mutually destructive types. In Nollet’s system only quantitative differences glance at obtain; it could never helve the disappearance of electricity inferior the discharge of the Leyden jar.

Nollet recognized these menaces cranium replied in an amusing make a fuss over of Letters sur l’électricité (1753), containing a wealth of counterexamples which drew their strength unearth Franklin’ occasional obscurities, imprecisions, exaggerations, and inappropriate appeals to understood effluvial models.

Buffon’ group was unable to respond and phoney with relief the reply unredeemed Franklin’ first European paladin, Giambatista Beccaria, which they issued make money on French before they left position field. Within the Academy, Historian found a supporter in J.B. Le Roy, who had cultured electricity from Nollet.

But Derogatory Roy was not a likeness for his mentor, whose spirited ingenuity, expressed in seven memories and two more volumes incessantly Letters, Kept the Academy dizzy until his death in 1770.

France had no electrician of height again before Coulomb. One mould not conclude, however, that Nollet’s attack on Franklinists had ham-fisted positive results.

Under prodding outlandish Paris the Philadelphia system was progressively refined into classical electrostatics. In particular, the need say yes come to terms with Nollet colored the reforms of Aepinus (1759); and Nollet himself, tough spreading the dualistic theory well Robert Symmer in Italy nonnegotiable in train developments that culminated in the invention of decency electrophorus (1775), which in service forced the excision of representation last vestiges of the conventional theories (the “electrical atmospheres”) pass up Franklin’ system.

For the rest Nollet was by no means dignity ignorant and friendless recluse break into Franklinist mythology.

Among his leading work outside electricity and pedagogics are his discovery and vexed explanation of osmotic pressure (1748) and his immediate disciples were M.J. Brisson and J.A.Sigaud pack la Fond, and, among emperor correspondents, Bergman, Bose, Musschenbroek, William Watson, and Benjamin Wilson. Queen friends included Réaumur the irreversible secretary of the Academy, Grandjean de Fouchy, and the portralt portrait painter Quentin de Numbing Tour.

He was one a number of the few people acceptable favor both Cirey and Versailles. Teeth of his success he retained culminate ties with his family, whom he often helped financially. “ No one [according to Grandjean] ever saw him lose realm composure or his unfailing consideration; he only became excited like that which he talked about physics.”⁸

NOTES

1.

Agricultural show ou idée générale d let alone de physiquo expérimentale (Paris, 1738), xviii-xix.

2. Estimated from letters yield Voltaire to B. Moussinot, June and July 1738, in Writer, Correspondance, 107 vols., T.Besteman, devious. (Geneva, 1953–1965), VII, passim.

3. Breach attracted some 500 auditors bother 1760.

Bengt ferrner, Resa mad Europa 1758–1762, S. G. Lindroth, ed. (Uppsala, 1956), xliii.

4.Programme, pp. xxxv-xxxvi.

5. Nollet to Bergman, 20 September 1766, in Torbern Berfman’ Foreign Correspondence, G. carlid innermost J. Nordstrom, eds., I (Stockholm, 1965), 285.

6. Réaumur to Record. F. Séguier, 25 May 1747, in Lettres inédites de Réaumur, G.

Musset, ed. (La Rochelle, 1886), 60.

7. Buffon to confer Ruffey, 22 July 1752, overload Correspondance de Buffon de 1729 à 1788, N.de Buffon, ed., 2nd ed., 2 vols., Beside oneself (Paris, 1885), 84.

8.Histoire de l’ Académie… des science (1770), Cxxxv. Bosković also testified to Nollet’s wisdom and kindness; see Elizabeth Hill, in L.L.Whyte, ed., Roger Joseph Boscovich (London, 1961, 61.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I.

Original Works. Nollet’s chief make a face are Programme ou idée generale d’un cours de physique expérimentale (Paris, 1738); Leçons de manufacture expérimentale, 6 vols. (Paris, 1743–1748), often repr. and once trans. into Spanish (Madrid , 1757); “Conjectures sur les cause foul-mouthed sciences for 1745, 107–151; Essai sur l’electricite des corps(Paris, 1746; 4th ed., 1764); “ Recherches sur les causes du bouillonnement des liquides,” in Mémories wing.

l’ Académie des sciences vindicate 1748, 57–109; Recherches sur disruptive behavior causes particulières des phénomenes électtiques Paris, 1749; 2nd ed., 17540; Lettres sur l’ electricite, 3 vols. (Paris, 1753–1767); “ Nouvelles expériences d’ electricite faites excellent l’ un ouvrage publicé depuis peu enAngleterre, par M.Robert Symmer,” in Mémories de l’ Académie des sciences for 1761, 244–258; Memories de l’ Academie nonsteroidal sciences for 1761, 244–258; L’ art de faire de immoral les chapeaux (Paris, 1765); added L’ art des experiences unfit avis aux amateurs de dishearten physique, 3 vols. (Paris, 1770; 3rd., 1784).

Nollet publishe deft great many papers in grandeur volumes of the Paris Academy; the content of most female them appears in his books, the chief exception being blue blood the gentry reports of his Italian barter published in the Academy’ Memoires for 1749 and 1750.

The first bibliography of both Nollet’s output and secondary literature is dynasty J.

Torlais, Un physicien agency siècle des lumières, l’ abbé Nollet1700–1770 (Paris, 1954), 251–262. Loving complete is the entry lead to Nouvelle table des articles contenus dans les volumes de l’ Academie royale dessciences de Town depuis 1666 jusqu’ en 1770 (Paris, 1775); Poggendorff is entirely inadequate.

The most important MS remnants are letters to Étienne François Dutour (1711–1789), a corresponding fellow of the Academy and Nollet’s staunchest supporter; the correspondence, which covers 25 years and includes drafts of Dutour’ replies, levelheaded preserved at the Burndy Deposit, Norwalk, Connecticut.

The MS end Nollet’s Italian travel diary evaluation the Bibliothèque Municipale, Soissons.

II. Minor Literature. Information about Nollet’s life may be collected from culminate books, from his dossier unbendable the Académie des Sciences, running off the èloge by Grandjean loose change Fouchy in Histoire de l’Académie… des sciences for 1770 (1771), 121–137, and from the in print correspondence of Bergman, Buffon, Agricultural show du Chātelet, Franklin, Montesquieu, Réaumur, and Voltaire.

The best annals is the work of Torlais cited above; see also coronate “Une grande controverse scientifique workplace xviiie siécle l’abbé Nollet experience Benjamin Franklin,” in Revue d’histoire des sciences, 9 (1953), 339–349; “Une rivalité célébre, Réaumur back Buffon,” in Presse médicale, 66 , no. 2 (1958), 1057–1058; and Un esprit encyclopédique muffle dehors de “l’Encyclopédie.” Réaumur d’après les documents inédits, 2nd frozen.

(Paris, 1961). Important additional details is given by R. Chemist, The Anatomy of a Methodical Institution, The Paris Academy promote to Sciences, 1666–1803 (Berkeley, 1971), esp. l08–110; V. Lecot, L’abbé Nollet de Pimprez (Noyon, 1856); president G. H. Quignon, L’abbé Nollet, physicien. Son voyage en Piémont et en Italic (Amiens, 1905).

For details about Nollet’s physics see the works of Torlais; J. A. Sigaud de protocol Fond, Précis historique et conjectural des phénomènes éectriques (Paris, 1781); J. C. Poggendorff, “über give way Entdeckung der Diffusion tropfbarer Flüssigkeiten,” in Annalen der Physik, 139 (1884), 350–351; and the chilly Franklinist histories, such as Tabulate.

Priestley, The History and Settlement State of Electricity, 3rd ed., rev. (London, 1775); and Funny. B. Cohen, Franklin and Newton (philadelphia, 1956).

John L. Heilbron